ORF102 and ORF103 of pAL1 were amplified by PCR using Phusion™ Hot Start High-Fidelity DNA Polymerase (Finnzymes Oy, Espoo, Finland), using total DNA of A. nitroguajacolicus Rü61a [pAL1] as the template and the primer sets listed in Supporting Information, Table S1. PCR products were subsequently ligated into pMal-c2x Selleckchem CH5424802 or pART2malE. Competent E. coli and A. nitroguajacolicus Rü61a [pAL1] cells were generated as described by Hanahan (1983)

and Gartemann & Eichenlaub (2001), respectively. All plasmid inserts and flanking regions were verified by sequencing (GATC Biotech AG, Konstanz, Germany). For the preparation of covalent complexes of telomeric pAL1-DNA and MBP-pORF102 or MBP-pORF103, frozen cells of A. nitroguajacolicus Rü61a [pAL1, pART2malE-ORF102] or A. nitroguajacolicus Rü61a [pAL1, pART2malE-ORF103] were thawed in 20 mM Tris/HCl buffer containing 400 mM NaCl, 1 mM

EDTA (pH 7.4) (buffer A), and 1 mM phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride. After incubation for 30 min with 2 mg mL−1 lysozyme, crude extracts containing soluble proteins were prepared by sonication, followed by centrifugation. Supernatants were applied find more to an amylose column (5 mL bed volume), equilibrated in buffer A. After washing with the same buffer, MBP fusions were eluted with buffer A containing 20 mM maltose. Eluates were loaded to a GF/C Whatman glass microfiber filter (Whatman International Ltd, Kent, UK) (Coombs & Pearson, 1978). The immobilized complexes were washed four times with 1 M NaCl and eluted with 0.5% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), 0.1 M NaCl in water (Bao & Cohen, 2001). Eluted complexes were precipitated twice with 0.1 volume Suplatast tosilate of 3 M sodium acetate and 2.5 volumes of ethanol. Precipitates were redissolved in sterile water. In order to identify the DNA attached to MBP-pORF102, MBP-pORF103, or both, the redissolved complexes were used as templates in PCR reactions with GoTaq® Green DNA polymerase (Promega GmbH, Mannheim, Germany). The primer pairs for amplification of terminal regions of pAL1, an internal segment of pAL1, and a region of the chromosome of A. nitroguajacolicus Rü61a

[pAL1] are listed in Table S1. For the preparation of the MBP-pORF102 fusion protein, 5 g of frozen cells of E. coli K12 ER2508 [pLysSRARE, pMal-c2x-ORF102] were thawed in buffer A. After incubation for 30 min and addition of 1 mM MgCl2 and 10 U mL–1 benzonase, crude extracts were prepared by sonication and centrifugation as described above. The eluate from subsequent amylose affinity chromatography (performed as described above) was applied on HiTrap™ Desalting columns (4 × 5 mL, GE Healthcare, Munich, Germany) equilibrated in buffer B, consisting of 50 mM Tris/HCl (pH 8.0). The desalted eluate was loaded onto a UnoQ column (6 mL bed volume, Bio-Rad Laboratories, Munich, Germany) equilibrated in the same buffer.

JBIR-46, -47, and -48 inhibited the proliferation of HL-60 cells with IC50 values of 189, 226, and 96 μM, respectively. This study showed that gene-based screening of the hmgr gene in the mevalonate pathway can be successfully used for high-throughput screening of strains for the production of isoprenoid compounds. Moreover, novel isoprenoids

were isolated from the cultures of sponge-derived Streptomyces. Thus, our results suggest that marine Actinobacteria, especially the members of the genus Streptomyces, are a promising source of novel bioactive compounds. This work was www.selleckchem.com/products/cx-4945-silmitasertib.html supported by a grant from the New Energy and Industrial Technology Department Organization of Japan. The authors thank Mr Akihiko Kanamoto Romidepsin purchase of OP Bio Factory Co. Ltd, for his help in collecting the sponge sample. Table S1. Compositions of the culture media used in this study. Please note: Wiley-Blackwell is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting materials supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing material) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article. “
“Yersiniae expressing an l-arabinose-inducible luxCDABE reporter

were used to analyze the colonization of mice. Infection of live mice was followed over a period of 6 days. These experiments revealed frequent colonization of cervical lymph nodes after oral, but not intravenous infection. Furthermore, the well-known colonization of the small intestine, Peyer’s patches (PPs) of the ileum, the cecal lymph follicle,

mesenteric lymph nodes, liver, and spleen was easily detectable. Removal of the intestinal tract of mice revealed that the number of abscessed PPs and other tissues can be easily quantified. Experiments with an invasin mutant expressing luxCDABE revealed a significantly reduced number of abscessed PPs, cecal lymph follicles, and lymph nodes in yersiniae lacking invasin. Yersinia enterocolitica is an enteropathogenic Gram-negative bacterium, which is the third most common cause of foodborne gastroenteritis in Europe (Bottone, 1997). Yersinia enterocolitica can proliferate in food products Bay 11-7085 at refrigerator temperatures, making it a major concern for public health authorities. Yersiniosis may present as enteritis, terminal ileitis, or mesenteric lymphadenitis (pseudoappendicitis) with watery or sometimes bloody diarrhea. Patients with iron overload states such as hemolytic anemia or hemochromatosis can develop systemic disease with focal abscess formation in the liver and spleen (Bockemühl & Roggentin, 2004). In the oral mouse infection model, a similar disease results, with yersiniae replicating in the small intestine, invading Peyer’s patches (PPs) of the distal ileum, and disseminating to the liver and spleen. In these tissues and organs, yersiniae replicate predominantly extracellularly and form monoclonal microabscesses (Oellerich et al., 2007).

To this end we compared BOLD responses Adriamycin evoked by search in the same parts of the VF, while having the eyes in different orientations relative to the head; conversely, by keeping non-eye-centred locations during search constant, while varying the position of search items within the VF. Our results suggest that both the IPS and the right FEF contribute to visual search by using eye-centred coding. Fourteen right-handed and one left-handed subject (mean age 27.1 years; six female, nine male; with normal or corrected-to-normal visual acuity, using scanner-compatible

glasses) participated in this study, which was approved by the Ethics Review Board of the Medical Faculty of Tübingen University. Hence, this study fully conforms with the code of ethics of the World Medical Association [Declaration of Helsinki; see Br Med J (July 1964), 818]. Each subject provided her/his written informed consent and was compensated financially for her/his participation. The subjects had to perform a task of covert

visual search in a mixed-block/event-related fMRI setting. Visual stimuli were presented onto a screen positioned frontoparallel to the subjects lying supine in the scanner. Using a beamer (NEC GT 950 1024 × 768 pixel) the stimuli were back-projected from outside the scanner room onto a mirror directing the beam parallel to the bore and centred onto a semi-opaque (diameter 60 cm) screen in the darkened scanner. The subjects were able to view the screen using a mirror system attached to the Selleck Lenvatinib Fossariinae head-coil at a viewing distance of 70 cm. Stimulus presentations and data recording were controlled by a program written in LabView. Each trial consisted

of three epochs, as shown in Fig. 1B. After a randomly varied fixation period of 500–2500 ms [the white fixation point (diameter 0.35°) was either projected straight ahead, 10° to the right or left on the black screen], subjects were exposed to a search array in either their right or left visual hemifield. The array had a width of 3° (height 8°) visual angle and was placed with its centre at 5° eccentricity to the left or right of the fixation point. The array consisted of six ‘L’-shaped items (each 1.2° × 1.2°). A singular ‘L’ of conventional orientation, present in 50% of the trials, served as the target. The other items in the field, serving as distractors, were ‘L’s of non-conventional orientation obtained by mirroring a normal ‘L’ at one of the cardinal axes. Subjects had 3000 ms to decide whether the target was present in the array or not, while keeping fixation. At the end of this search period, the fixation dot disappeared and, at the same time, two response targets appeared on the vertical meridian, 4° above and below the centre.

Extracellular recordings also revealed an absence of changes to SC synaptic Wnt inhibitor responses and indicated input–output and short-term plasticity were also unaltered in the

temporoammonic (TA) input. However, in DISC1tr mice theta burst-induced long-term potentiation was enhanced in the SC pathway but completely lost in the TA pathway. These data demonstrate that expressing a truncated form of DISC1 affects intrinsic properties of CA1-PNs and produces pathway-specific effects on long-term synaptic plasticity. “
“Dopamine has been suggested to have direct antinociceptive effects. However, effects on the motivation to endure or to avoid nociceptive stimulation would be more in line with dopamine’s well-established role in the motivation to obtain reward. Thus, dopamine might either selleck compound inhibit or facilitate the perception of nociceptive stimuli to bias an organism towards endurance or avoidance depending on the relative importance

of the nociceptive input. To test this hypothesis, we conducted two psychophysical experiments in human volunteers. In Experiment 1, the respective antinociceptive and pro-nociceptive effects of monetary wins and losses were assessed by administering thermal stimuli (three intensities, within-subject factor) while participants simultaneously won, lost, or neither won nor lost (neutral condition) money (within-subject factor) in a wheel-of-fortune task. In Experiment 2, we tested the effect of low-dose sulpiride (a centrally-acting D2-receptor antagonist Thymidylate synthase increasing the synaptic availability of dopamine via predominant pre-synaptic blockade) on the same task as in Experiment 1 using a placebo-controlled, cross-over design. Monetary wins

decreased and losses enhanced the perception of nociceptive stimuli, which was highly reproducible. Sulpiride augmented perceptual modulation by monetary outcomes. This augmentation was driven by increased effects of monetary losses on the perception of nociceptive stimuli. The perception of nociceptive stimuli in the absence of monetary wins and losses was not affected by sulpiride. Based on these findings, we propose a new role of dopamine in the context of nociception: biasing the organism towards a decision in situations with conflicting motivations, depending on the relative importance of the nociceptive input. “
“The current study examined the role of the lateral reticular nucleus (LRN) in modulating the cardiosomatic reflex (CSR) induced by intrapericardial capsaicin in the anesthetized rat. Intrapericardial capsaicin was administered, and the CSR was monitored via electromyogram responses of the dorsal spinotrapezius muscle. Electrical stimulation of the LRN (10, 20 and 30 μA) depressed the CSR induced by intrapericardial capsaicin in an intensity-dependent manner. Microinjection of glutamate (4, 10, 20 and 40 nmol, in 0.2 μL) into the LRN replicated the effects of electrical stimulation.

But it is worth mentioning that tree peony is not only a kind of ornamental plant but has also been used in traditional Chinese medicine as an antimicrobial or anti-inflammatory, whose main effective components are paeonol and paeoniflorin (Yan et al., 2004; Chung et al., 2007). At present, we donot know whether and how the plant-associated bacterial community is influenced by these

antimicrobial components in tree peony plants. This study provides basic information about the diversity of bacteria associated with tree peony, a famous traditional ornamental plant species in China. Despite some limitations in this study of bacterial diversity, Selleck 5-Fluoracil based on a culture-dependent approach with eight isolation media, future work is warranted to compare these results with those obtained with culture-independent approaches. This work was supported

by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31070617), National Natural Science Foundation of Shanghai (11ZR1436100), Program of Shanghai Municipal Agricultural BGB324 chemical structure Commission (2008-10-4), and Key Technologies R&D Program of Shanghai (10391901200, 10dz2253700). J.H. and Y.S. contributed equally to this work. “
“Protein expression of Lactobacillus brevis NCL912 under acid stress was analysed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and MS. Twenty-five proteins were differentially expressed under acid stress. Among them, eight protein spots were identified by Cediranib (AZD2171) matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight MS, of which seven were upregulated and one was downregulated. The function of the downregulated

protein was unknown and the putative functions of the upregulated proteins were categorized as stress response, DNA repair, protein synthesis and glycolysis. Quantitative real-time PCR was used to further validate these differentially expressed proteins at the mRNA level and a positive correlation between the content of the proteins and their mRNA levels was found. The results suggest that these proteins are involved in the acid stress response mechanisms of this bacterium. Lactobacilli are generally regarded as safe to humans and play a crucial role in the production of a large variety of fermented foods and in human health. Specific strains of Lactobacillus species are currently marketed as health-promoting cultures, starters or probiotics (Kleerebezem et al., 2010). The growth of lactobacilli is characterized by the production of organic acids, mainly lactic acid, which accumulate and lead to a reduction of pH in its growth environment. As probiotics, these bacteria encounter a transient acidic environment in the stomach after consumption (van de Guchte et al., 2002), and therefore they must be capable of tolerating and surviving this acidic environment before performing their health benefits. Acid stress greatly affects the growth and bioactivities of lactobacilli.

But it is worth mentioning that tree peony is not only a kind of ornamental plant but has also been used in traditional Chinese medicine as an antimicrobial or anti-inflammatory, whose main effective components are paeonol and paeoniflorin (Yan et al., 2004; Chung et al., 2007). At present, we donot know whether and how the plant-associated bacterial community is influenced by these

antimicrobial components in tree peony plants. This study provides basic information about the diversity of bacteria associated with tree peony, a famous traditional ornamental plant species in China. Despite some limitations in this study of bacterial diversity, Gemcitabine supplier based on a culture-dependent approach with eight isolation media, future work is warranted to compare these results with those obtained with culture-independent approaches. This work was supported

by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (31070617), National Natural Science Foundation of Shanghai (11ZR1436100), Program of Shanghai Municipal Agricultural Selleckchem Paclitaxel Commission (2008-10-4), and Key Technologies R&D Program of Shanghai (10391901200, 10dz2253700). J.H. and Y.S. contributed equally to this work. “
“Protein expression of Lactobacillus brevis NCL912 under acid stress was analysed by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and MS. Twenty-five proteins were differentially expressed under acid stress. Among them, eight protein spots were identified by crotamiton matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight MS, of which seven were upregulated and one was downregulated. The function of the downregulated

protein was unknown and the putative functions of the upregulated proteins were categorized as stress response, DNA repair, protein synthesis and glycolysis. Quantitative real-time PCR was used to further validate these differentially expressed proteins at the mRNA level and a positive correlation between the content of the proteins and their mRNA levels was found. The results suggest that these proteins are involved in the acid stress response mechanisms of this bacterium. Lactobacilli are generally regarded as safe to humans and play a crucial role in the production of a large variety of fermented foods and in human health. Specific strains of Lactobacillus species are currently marketed as health-promoting cultures, starters or probiotics (Kleerebezem et al., 2010). The growth of lactobacilli is characterized by the production of organic acids, mainly lactic acid, which accumulate and lead to a reduction of pH in its growth environment. As probiotics, these bacteria encounter a transient acidic environment in the stomach after consumption (van de Guchte et al., 2002), and therefore they must be capable of tolerating and surviving this acidic environment before performing their health benefits. Acid stress greatly affects the growth and bioactivities of lactobacilli.

4). The last two results suggested a σE-dependent regulation of the sbmA promoter. In contrast to the above results, eliminating σE

would reduce the expression of sbmA. Although rpoE is essential, it could be deleted from the strain SC122 (Rouviere et al., 1995) in the presence of an uncharacterized suppressor mutation (Alba et al., 2001), obtaining the CAG22222 strain. This allows a comparison of the specific activity of the ΔsbmA∷lacZY fusion (transduced in the two above-mentioned strains) in the presence and absence of σE. The stationary-phase activity of ΔsbmA∷lacZY fusion seen in the wild-type rpoE+ context (NC122 strain) was almost completely abolished in an rpoE background (NC322 strain) (Fig. 5). On the other hand, the induction of the ΔsbmA∷lacZY fusion activity by ethanol addition was also observed in the NC122 fusion strain and was reverted in the absence of rpoE (NC322 strain) PD0325901 order (data not shown). The last result confirms the σE-mediated induction of sbmA by this extracytoplasmatic stress. In order to evaluate the influence GDC-0449 of σE on the tolC mutation-dependent upregulation

of sbmA, the tolC rpoE double mutant of the ΔsbmA∷lacZY fusion was constructed. To this end, a P1 transduction was performed with a tolC∷Tn10 mutant, as a donor, and NC122 and NC322 strains, as recipients, obtaining the NC222 and NC422 strains, respectively. Figure 5 shows that the increase in the β-galactosidase activity of ΔsbmA∷lacZY fusion produced in a tolC context (NC222 strain) disappears when rpoE is absent (NC422 strain). Altogether, these Reverse transcriptase results strongly support the idea that the transcriptional induction of sbmA by tolC mutation is completely σE dependent. It is well known that tolC mutants are pleiotropic and extremely sensitive to detergents and dyes, mainly due to the inability to pump out noxious compounds. In this mutant, a membrane permeability defect

was also demonstrated that involved a modification in the OmpF/OmpC ratio, pushing this in favor of OmpC (and MicF) (Misra & Reeves, 1987). Recently, we demonstrated that the tolC mutation severely reduces high-level resistance to tetracycline (de Cristobal et al., 2008). These results have indicated that TolC is critical for E. coli survival in an environment with noxious compounds. We also found that the inactivation of sbmA alone partially inhibited high-level tetracycline resistance. Moreover, the sbmA tolC double mutation had an additive effect, resulting in almost complete suppression of the phenotypic expression of Tn10 tetracycline resistance. In this paper, we showed that there is an sbmA-positive regulation in response to the absence of tolC, mediated by σE activation. This upregulation could be caused by the alteration in outer membrane permeability.

Proviral HIV-1 DNA was defective in 26% of patients (n = 44): 24% contained in-frame stop codons (nonsense mutations) and 4% contained single nucleotide deletions (frameshift mutations). The median (IQR) total number of resistance mutations in both RT and PR among the 121 patients was 17 (15, 19) and 13 (8, 17) for HIV-1 RNA and DNA, respectively (P < 0.001). The respective median (IQR) number of resistance mutations for HIV-1 RNA and DNA

was 5 (5, 6) and 4 (2, 5) for NRTIs, 2 (1, 2) and 1 (0, 2) for NNRTIs, and 10 (8, 12) and 8 (3, 12) for PIs, respectively. The number of resistance mutations for each drug class was significantly lower in DNA than in RNA (P < 0.001). Figure 1 shows the frequencies of HIV-1 RNA and DNA mutations for the three drug classes. NRTI resistance mutations among the 128 RT available sequences were 20% more frequent in RNA than in DNA at codons M41L, D67N, L74V, M184V, L210W and find more T215Y/F. Only the mutation frequency at codon K70R was similar in RNA and DNA (31% and 34%, respectively). NNRTI

resistance mutations at codons K103N, Y181C and G190A/Q were 10% more frequent in RNA than in DNA. Among the 156 available PR sequences, major resistance mutations were 10% more frequent in RNA than in DNA at codons L33F/I/V, Gefitinib research buy M46I/L, I54M/L, V82A/C/F/G, I84V and L90M. In contrast, the mutation D30N was detected more frequently in DNA (10%) than in RNA (4%). Based on the RNA and DNA genotypes among the 121 patients, the median (IQR) numbers of drugs for which resistance and possible resistance were detected were, respectively, 12.5 (11.0, 13.5) and 8.8 (4.0, 10.5) for all antiretrovirals, PAK6 4.5 (4.0, 5.5) and 3.0 (1.0, 4.5) for NRTIs, 2.0 (2.0, 2.0) and 0.0 (0.0, 2.0) for NNRTIs, and 6.0 (5.0, 6.0) and 3.5 (0.0, 6.0) for PIs. The numbers of drugs for which resistance and possible resistance were detected were significantly lower in DNA than in RNA for all drug classes (P < 0.001). Figure 2 shows the percentage of patients with viruses resistant or possibly resistant to each member of the three therapeutic

classes. The percentage of patients with resistance or possible resistance was higher in the RNA genotype than in the DNA genotype for the majority of drugs, whatever the therapeutic class. The proportion with NRTI resistance among the 128 patients with available RT sequences ranged between 54 and 98% with RNA genotyping and between 35 and 76% with DNA genotyping. Resistance to at least one NRTI was detected by RNA genotyping but not by DNA genotyping in 63% of patients (81 of 128), and by DNA genotyping but not RNA genotyping in 13% of patients (17 of 128). NNRTI (efavirenz and nevirapine) resistance was found in 91–94% of patients by RNA genotyping and in 46–48% of patients by DNA genotyping. Resistance to at least one NNRTI was found by RNA but not by DNA genotyping in 47% of patients (60 of 128), and by DNA but not RNA genotyping in 1% of patients (one of 128).

Fibrinogen is positively associated with mortality in HIV-infected selleck compound individuals [31], but whether this translates to increased CVD risk is unclear. PI therapy was associated with increased fibrinogen levels in the Fat Redistribution and Metabolic Change Study (FRAM) [39]. We found that fibrinogen was positively correlated with LDL-cholesterol levels in HIV-infected children. Fibrinogen may represent coagulation risk, but may also reflect inflammation. Several studies in adults have reported

associations between endothelial dysfunction markers and HIV disease severity [40, 41]. We found that MCP-1, sICAM, and sVCAM levels were higher in the HIV-infected children compared with the HEU children, and that higher levels were associated with viral load, independent of metabolic status. These findings suggest that HIV itself may cause immune activation and resulting endothelial injury [41]. These biomarkers are associated with all-cause mortality in

non-HIV-infected populations [42] and sVCAM levels are associated with increased carotid intima media thickness (cIMT) in HIV-infected adults [43]. The HIV trans-activator of transcription (Tat) this website and negative regulatory factor (Nef) proteins induce VCAM-1, ICAM-1 and MCP-1. ICAM was elevated in HIV-infected Glutamate dehydrogenase children compared with controls and elevations were inversely related to CD4 cell counts [44]. In addition, MCP-1 is thought to activate viral infection [45]. Treatment interruptions are associated with increased levels of sVCAM, ICAM and P-selectin [46], suggesting the influence of viral activity on expression of these biomarkers. We did not find a strong effect of ARVs on the biomarkers

we studied, possibly as a consequence of the collinearity of the effect of ARVs on metabolic outcomes. PI therapy was associated with higher fibrinogen and NNRTI was associated with higher CRP. In cell culture, ARVs can alter endothelial cell mitochondrial DNA, thereby increasing the production of reactive oxygen species [47, 48], endothelial cell permeability [49], and leucocyte adhesion [50]. Thus, ARV therapy could directly or indirectly (through changes in the metabolic profile) increase levels of biomarkers. Studies on vascular inflammation and structural/functional vascular dysfunction (i.e. vessel compliance, distensibility and structure) in HIV-infected children have been limited [51-56]. We have recently shown that similar biomarkers are also associated with central adiposity and decreased immune function (lower CD4 cell counts), although we had limited ability to evaluate the effect of lipids on these biomarkers [22].

Fibrinogen is positively associated with mortality in HIV-infected MAPK inhibitor individuals [31], but whether this translates to increased CVD risk is unclear. PI therapy was associated with increased fibrinogen levels in the Fat Redistribution and Metabolic Change Study (FRAM) [39]. We found that fibrinogen was positively correlated with LDL-cholesterol levels in HIV-infected children. Fibrinogen may represent coagulation risk, but may also reflect inflammation. Several studies in adults have reported

associations between endothelial dysfunction markers and HIV disease severity [40, 41]. We found that MCP-1, sICAM, and sVCAM levels were higher in the HIV-infected children compared with the HEU children, and that higher levels were associated with viral load, independent of metabolic status. These findings suggest that HIV itself may cause immune activation and resulting endothelial injury [41]. These biomarkers are associated with all-cause mortality in

non-HIV-infected populations [42] and sVCAM levels are associated with increased carotid intima media thickness (cIMT) in HIV-infected adults [43]. The HIV trans-activator of transcription (Tat) selleck inhibitor and negative regulatory factor (Nef) proteins induce VCAM-1, ICAM-1 and MCP-1. ICAM was elevated in HIV-infected ADP ribosylation factor children compared with controls and elevations were inversely related to CD4 cell counts [44]. In addition, MCP-1 is thought to activate viral infection [45]. Treatment interruptions are associated with increased levels of sVCAM, ICAM and P-selectin [46], suggesting the influence of viral activity on expression of these biomarkers. We did not find a strong effect of ARVs on the biomarkers

we studied, possibly as a consequence of the collinearity of the effect of ARVs on metabolic outcomes. PI therapy was associated with higher fibrinogen and NNRTI was associated with higher CRP. In cell culture, ARVs can alter endothelial cell mitochondrial DNA, thereby increasing the production of reactive oxygen species [47, 48], endothelial cell permeability [49], and leucocyte adhesion [50]. Thus, ARV therapy could directly or indirectly (through changes in the metabolic profile) increase levels of biomarkers. Studies on vascular inflammation and structural/functional vascular dysfunction (i.e. vessel compliance, distensibility and structure) in HIV-infected children have been limited [51-56]. We have recently shown that similar biomarkers are also associated with central adiposity and decreased immune function (lower CD4 cell counts), although we had limited ability to evaluate the effect of lipids on these biomarkers [22].