Targets of HIV/AIDS vaccine candidates GDC-0980 solubility dmso Current vaccine candidates are aimed at inducing multiple types of immune effectors with a single vaccine. These effectors include CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell lymphocytes of increased potency and breadth, and broad neutralising and perhaps non-neutralising antibody, to handle the many circulating HIV strains. The 2009 ‘Thai vaccine trial’ suggested a need to examine the role of non-neutralising antibody and the possibility

of preventing HIV acquisition, not just progressive immunodeficiency. A better understanding of the multiple subsets of CD4+ lymphocytes in HIV infection and the role of DCs as initial targets for infection are at the forefront

of these new efforts. New hybrid viral vectors, synthetic antigens (developed with the aid of three-dimensional modelling), novel adjuvants that manipulate the immune system to induce desirable responses and more useful animal models are also being developed and tested. Development of vaccines that induce broad neutralising antibodies to highly variable viruses, such as HIV and influenza, has proved to be extremely difficult. However, screening HIV-infected individuals for such antibodies has allowed the identification of previously undiscovered viral epitopes which can be incorporated into structure-based vaccine design. Infections of group A streptococcal serotypes (ie Streptococcus pyogenes)

account for approximately 85% of cases of uncomplicated bacterial pharyngitis Dasatinib price and streptococcal invasive infections in North America. The M protein of group A streptococci is a major virulence determinant of these organisms and also functions as a major target for protective antibodies. One of several strategies for vaccine prevention of these infections is based on type-specific M protein epitopes. However, group A streptococcal vaccine development faces many obstacles: i) the widespread diversity of circulating M protein types; ii) immunological cross-reactivity between epitopes in the M protein and several human tissues introducing an autoimmune risk; and iii) animal models are of limited Oxymatrine value because humans are the only hosts for group A streptococci. In an attempt to partially overcome some of these obstacles, a design strategy akin to that of the pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccines has been employed to generate a group A streptococci multivalent M protein-based vaccine containing type-specific determinants from 26 different M serotypes. This multivalent vaccine is currently in clinical development. The term ‘prime boost’ (or heterologous boosting) describes an approach to vaccination where one type of vaccine, such as a live-vector vaccine, is administered followed by a second type of vaccine, such as a recombinant subunit vaccine.

Within the STRENDA initiative a number of obligatory conditions are defined that are necessary BIBF 1120 concentration to characterise the experiments when enzyme kinetic data are published (Tipton et al., 2014). In this respect it is interesting to analyse the BRENDA data if at least the most important conditions, pH and temperature were given in the original paper. The analysis is shown in Table

7. For mutant enzymes the exact sequence modifications must be given, of course. BRENDA lists more than 52,000 single kinetic data for mutant enzymes, either on natural occurring mutations or on mutations achieved by site-directed mutagenesis. Each value is connected to an organism, a protein sequence ID for the enzyme where available, and to a literature reference. In addition to the mentioned cases for enzyme, ligand, organism, tissue, localisation there are a number of other information fields in BRENDA with a controlled vocabulary or a standardized form. This includes: • Application (25 categories such as agriculture, drug development, diagnostics, environmental protection, medicine, synthesis,

toxicology, veterinary medicine etc.). The DRENDA part of BRENDA covers information Forskolin chemical structure on Enzyme/Disease relationships, including enzymes where the function or malfunction is connected to a disease or where the enzyme is used for diagnosis or treatment (Söhngen et al., 2011). For the disease-related part of DRENDA the established Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) standard, a comprehensive controlled vocabulary is used that was originally designed for indexing journal articles (Sewell, 1964). This includes, among other categories, 22,000 Amylase terms for

diseases and metabolic disorders which are classified under the top level category “diseases”. None of the authors have any conflict of interest. We wish to thank all scientists who maintain the BRENDA website, performed the literature annotation and created the molecular structures for the enzyme ligands. In addition, this is also to thank the following funding agencies: European Union: SLING—Serving Life-Science Information for the Next Generation [226073]; Federal Ministry of Education and Research, Germany, L3S Research Centre: Advancement and Updating the Enzyme Information System BRENDA [01KX1235]; Niedersächsisches Ministerium für Wissenschaft und Kultur, Germany, MWK/TU Braunschweig [74ZN1122]. “
“Human genome research and subsequent post-genome research provided both the systematic analyses and wide definition of the “genome”, i.e., the substances coded by the genome, such as gene expression, polymorphism and proteome. DNA, RNA and proteins are synthesized based on genetic codes and template-based duplication, transcription and translation. On the other hand, chemical structures of metabolites such as glycans, lipids and terpenoids are not designed by such templates, but by biosynthetic pathways. Kanehisa et al.

Index 427 “
“Cynthia Bautista Michelle VanDemark

Bacterial meningitis is an infection of the meninges that can be infected by bacteria, virus, or fungus. The classic triad of bacterial meningitis consists Volasertib of fever, neck stiffness, and altered mental status; headache is also another common symptom. Interventions for bacterial meningitis include prompt diagnosis, and initiation of antimicrobial therapy to optimize bacterial kill and decrease inflammatory response in the subarachnoid space. Nursing management consists of effective delivery of antibiotic therapy, fluid management, and supportive care. Misti Tuppeny Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges, whereas encephalitis is inflammation of the parenchymal brain tissue. The single distinguishing element CX-5461 clinical trial between the 2 diagnoses is the altered state of consciousness, focal deficits, and seizures found in encephalitis. Consequently meningoencephalitis is a term used when both findings are present in the patient. Viral meningitis is not necessarily reported as it is often underdiagnosed, whereas encephalitis cases are on the increase in various areas of North America. Improved imaging and viral diagnostics, as well as enhanced neurocritical care management, have improved patient outcomes to date. Tess Slazinski A brain abscess is defined as a localized collection of pus within the parenchyma

of the brain or meninges. Brain abscesses are a complication of ear, sinus, and/or dental infections. Although they may occur in many brain locations, the most common sites are frontal and temporal lobes. Modern neuroimaging and laboratory analysis have led to prompt diagnosis and have decreased the mortality rates from brain abscess. Critical care nurses have a vital role in performing accurate neurologic assessments, timely administration of

antibiotics, and management of fever. Katherine G. Johnson Spinal epidural abscess is a rare bacterial infection located within the spinal canal. Early diagnosis and rapid treatment are important because of its potential to new cause rapidly progressive spinal cord compression and irreversible paralysis. A staphylococcus bacterial infection is the cause in most cases. Treatment includes antibiotics and possible surgical drainage of the abscess. A favorable neurologic outcome correlates with the severity and duration of neurologic deficits before surgery and the timeliness of the chosen intervention. It is important for the critical care nurse to monitor the patient’s neurologic status and provide appropriate interventions. Mary McKenna Guanci An infection of the ventricular system of the brain is referred to as ventriculitis. The signs and symptoms of ventriculitis include the triad of altered mental status, fever, and headache, as seen in the patient with meningitis.

60–38.80 PSU). This water mass is of Atlantic origin, is characterized by maximum oxygen contents of > 5.2 ml l−1 (Said & Eid Belnacasan in vitro 1994a) and occupies the 50–150 m layer. Below this layer, the Levantine intermediate water mass (LIW) of temperature < 16°C and maximum of salinity (38.90–39.10 PSU) is clearly identified. This water mass is formed in some regions of the eastern Mediterranean, from where it spreads. Regions of LIW formation in the eastern Mediterranean have been extensively discussed and are more or less identified

by Wüst, 1961, Morcos, 1972, Ozturgut, 1976, Özsoy et al., 1981, Ovchinnikov, 1984, Sukhovey and Said, 1985, Said, 1985, Abdel-Moati and Said, 1987 and Said and Karam, 1990. In the present study, long-term comparisons of water temperature and salinity for the Mediterranean surface waters and the Atlantic waters along the Egyptian Coast are shown in Figure 10 and Figure

11. The seasonal cycle of the local temperature differs markedly from that of the salinity. For the Mediterranean surface waters, the annual average of temperature and salinity (Figure 10) fluctuated between 23.51 and 27.71°C and 38.81 and 39.21 PSU, respectively, with a general trend of increasing temperature and decreasing salinity throughout the study period. During the last 25 years (1983–2008), the decadal temperature and salinity trends reached 0.85°C dec−1 and 0.073 PSU dec−1 respectively. For Atlantic waters, the annual average temperature was between 16.72 and 20°C, giving a temperature trend of 0.28°C dec−1 for the last 25 years. In the meantime, the annual average Metalloexopeptidase salinity of AW varied between 38.64 and 38.788 PSU, Afatinib cost indicating a salinity trend of 0.014 PSU dec−1 for the last 25 years. This increase in temperature and salinity of AW with time is therefore confirmed

as being attributable to anthropogenic modifications, especially the damming of the River Nile, in addition to local climatic changes, as suggested earlier by Rohling and Bryden, 1992 and Bethoux et al., 1990. 1. As a result of the erection of the Aswan High Dam in 1965, the yearly fresh water discharge of the River Nile into the south-eastern Mediterranean has decreased to a remarkable extent. The annual cycle of the discharge has also changed. At present, the discharge is only through the Rosetta Branch of the Nile Delta, and the maximum discharge is recorded in winter months. Such a change in both the total amount and pattern of freshwater discharge has obviously affected the characteristics of the coastal waters off the Nile Delta. “
“Coastal dunes, shoreline and nearshore bars constitute one large-scale interactive morphological system. The relationship between the bars and the shoreline on a dissipative, multi-bar (4 bars) shore at the IBW PAN Coastal Research Station (CRS) at Lubiatowo has been analysed by Pruszak et al. (1999). This analysis shows that the multi-bar system can comprise two distinct subsystems, i.e. inner (I, II) and outer (III, IV) bars.

, 2007 and Takeda et al., 2006). While the mechanism of protection remains unclear, it has been demonstrated that serofendic acid inhibits the generation of hydroxyl radicals and prevents

mitochondrial membrane depolarization and caspase-3 activation (Kume et al., 2006, Osakada et al., 2004 and Taguchi et al., 2003). We have previously reported the protective effect of serofendic acid on ischemia-reperfusion injury induced by transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAo) in rats. Intracerebroventricular administration of serofendic acid reduced the infarct volume, particularly in the cortex, and improved neurological deficit scores (Nakamura et al., 2008). selleck However, we previously reported that serofendic acid had a very low brain-to-plasma value (0.021), as passive transport of serofendic acid hardly occurs because of the existence of the carboxylic group (Terauchi et al., 2007). Thus, there are no reports of the effect of peripheral administration of serofendic acid on cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury. Whereas, serofendic acid enters into the brain in some degree in intravenous administration Epigenetic inhibitor (Terauchi et al., 2007) and it protects against cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury

at low concentration in the brain (Nakamura et al., 2008). Therefore, we investigated the effect of serofendic acid administrated intravenously on ischemia-reperfusion injury induced by tMCAo in rats. We examined the protective effect of multiple intravenous administration of serofendic acid because blood level of serofendic acid is immediately decreased (Terauchi et al., 2007). As a multiple administration, we utilized three times administration many of serofendic acid at 30 min before the onset of ischemia, just (within 5 min) after the onset of ischemia, and just (whithin 5 min) before reperfusion. Three times administration of serofendic acid (10 mg/kg) reduced infarct volume (Fig. 1). Next, we examined the dose-dependent effect of serofendic acid on infarct volume. Three times administration of serofendic acid (1–10 mg/kg) reduced infarct volume in a dose-dependent

manner (Fig. 2A). We examined the functional recovery by three times administration of serofendic acid with the evaluation of neurological deficit scores. Serofendic acid (1–10 mg/kg) improved neurological deficit scores in a dose-dependent manner (Fig. 2B). It is suggested that necrotic cell death occurs at ischemic core region and apoptotic cell death occurs at ischemic penumbra region (Ueda and Fujita, 2004). So, we examined the infarct volume limitation effect of serofendic acid at ischemic core (striatum) and penumbra (cerebral cortex) region to suggest that serofendic acid protects from which type of cell death. Serofendic acid significantly reduced the infarct volume at cerebral cortex, but did not affect the infarct volume at striatum (Fig. 3). Cerebral blood flow is a crucial factor for ischemic insults.

Although systemic antibiotics are likely to AZD2281 mouse remain the primary treatment option for patients

with moderate-to-severe COPD, inhaled antibiotics may provide a more appropriate way for the treatment and prevention of exacerbations in the future, particularly for the frequent exacerbators with chronic bacterial infection and for those with radiologically confirmed bronchiectasis. Regardless of the route of administration, however, further studies are required to estimate the potential risks of antibiotic prophylaxis in terms of long-term adverse events and resistance development and to assess whether benefit outweighs the potential risks. Antonio Anzueto has participated as a speaker in scientific meetings or courses organised and financed by various pharmaceutical companies including: AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bayer, Pfizer, GlaxoSmithKline, Sanofi-Aventis. A. Anzueto has been a consultant for AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Pfizer, GlaxoSmithKline, Sanofi-Aventis, Bayer. He has also been the principal investigator for research grants for the University of Texas Health Science Center (San Antonio, TX, USA) and was paid for participating in a multicentre clinical trial sponsored by: GlaxoSmithKline, Navitoclax clinical trial Bayer, Lilly

and National Institutes of Health. Marc Miravitlles has received speaker fees from Boehringer Ingelheim, Pfizer, AstraZeneca, Bayer Schering, Novartis, Talecris-Grifols, Carnitine dehydrogenase Takeda-Nycomed, Merck, Sharp & Dohme and Novartis, and consulting fees from Boehringer Ingelheim, Pfizer, GSK, AstraZeneca, Bayer Schering, Novartis, Almirall, Merck, Sharp & Dohme, Talecris-Grifols and Takeda-Nycomed. Sanjay Sethi has received institutional research funds from AstraZeneca and GlaxoSmithKline. He has received lecture and/or consulting fees from AstraZeneca, Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Forest, Pfizer, GlaxoSmithKline, Mpex, and Novartis. Robert Wilson has received honoraria for taking part in advisory boards and presenting at meetings from Almirall, Aperion Advisors LLC, AstraZeneca, Athena Medical PR, Bayer HealthCare, Forest Laboratories (Bronchiectasis

symposium), Genactis Ltd, Opticom International, Penn Technology Partnership, Resolutions Group, Rivervest, Transave, VacZine Analytics and Wyeth Pharmaceuticals. Highfield Communication, Oxford, UK, provided editorial assistance in the preparation of this manuscript. “
“Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the most common global infectious diseases with high mortality.1 For preventing further TB transmission, control should focus on early diagnosis and treatment of latent TB infection (LTBI).2 Next to TB contacts, the dialysis population, growing as a consequence of global ageing, is a known risk group due to attenuated immunity.3, 4 and 5 Defined by interferon-gamma release assays (IGRAs), LTBI has been associated with a decline in renal function6 and increasing prevalence to around 21–40% in the dialysis population.

Studies have shown that the approach enhances contrast and improves the ability to delineate boundaries [69]. Using this approach, simultaneous PET–MRI would not only provide co-registered PET and MR images but also enable the improvement of PET spatial resolution and contrast. Recent efforts have combined the technique with anatomical probabilistic atlases to yield PVE-corrected functional volumes of great accuracy, and the results have begun to be deployed in clinical studies [70]. The topics discussed above in 2 and 3 can also assist in improving the accuracy of quantitative PET by reducing motion error (and the associated increase in noise) and improving PET

reconstruction via anatomical priors. MR could be used for detecting and tracking motion due to respiration, the cardiac cycle and gross Selleck Gefitinib patient movement during the dynamic PET acquisition. Of course, by improving the PET reconstruction using the anatomical priors available from the MRI data, the PVE is reduced. A fundamental question surrounding

the potential future use and clinical application of dual PET–MRI contrast agents Selleckchem Cyclopamine is the vast difference in inherent sensitivities of the two techniques; PET studies require picomolar concentrations of the tracer, while the typical gadolinium MRI contrast agents require millimolar concentrations. However, these issues have not deterred the field from developing agents that can be detected simultaneously by each modality. To partially span the sensitivity gap, agents have been developed by tethering Teicoplanin positron emitters to dextran-coated superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) nanoparticles which require only micromolar concentrations to achieve reasonable MR contrast. We now briefly highlight some recent illustrative examples of this approach. Torres et al. attached 64Cu to a bisphosphonate (bp) group that binds to the dextran surface [71] of an SPIO. The copper is chelated within dithiocarbamate

(dtc) to form [64Cu(dtcbp)2] which has great affinity for the SPIO’s dextran. Upon in vivo (sequential) PET–MRI imaging, this construct showed retention only in the popliteal and iliac lymph nodes. Another example of a 64Cu-MION probe was developed by Glaus et al. who coated an SPIO with polyethylene glycol (PEG) phospholipids. DOTA (1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclo-dodecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid) was used to chelate 64Cu and then conjugated to the PEG [72]. The authors performed in vivo pharmacokinetic analysis with their construct in a murine model via microPET/CT and organ biodistribution studies. They concluded that the ability of the agent to have high initial blood retention with only moderate liver uptake makes it a potentially attractive contrast agent. They also noted that, in general, linking the PET agent to the nanoparticle provides improved circulation half-life [72]. Noting that the lymphatic system is a common route of metastases for cancer, Choi et al.

In healthy monkeys, active oscillations of the wrist are associated with a substantial phase lead of thalamic activity upon tremor (Butler et al., 1992). The present results show a lag in thalamic activity

during intention ET relative to other types of tremor (Fig. 4). This lag may be congruent to delays in motor cortical activity during tremulous isotonic movements that occur with cooling of the cerebellar nuclei in monkeys (Vilis and Hore, 1977 and Vilis and Hore, 1980). By analogy, the spike×EMG phase in intention ET and cerebellar tremor may contribute to the tremor, which is observed in these groups. In turn, the resulting delay in motor cortical activity may reflect the influence of sensory feedback on cerebellar feed-forward activity in tremulous movements associated with cerebellar cooling (Hore and Flament, 1988), Dabrafenib molecular weight and possibly with intention ET. The similarity of intention ET to cerebellar tremor suggests that it may result from disruption of the cerebellum, and not from the cerebellar pacemaker which is often associated with postural ET. Postural ET and intention ET were identified and were compared with intention tremor plus other clinical signs of cerebellar disruption

(cerebellar tremor). Thalamic neurons in patients with either intention ET or cerebellar tremor had lower firing rates and lower spike×EMG coherence than those in patients with postural ET. Patients with intention ET had a lower spike×EMG Progesterone phase lead than those with postural ET. Overall, thalamic Screening Library high throughput activity in intention ET was different from postural ET but not apparently different from cerebellar tremor. One patient with the intention ET had a good response to a left thalamotomy and suffered a right cerebellar hemispheric infarct five years later. After the stroke the intention ET recurred, which is consistent with our hypothesis

that intention ET is similar to cerebellar tremor. After such a stroke, intention ET would be predicted to increase if it were due to cerebellar disruption but decrease if it were due to a pacemaker in the cerebellum and related structures. This difference in mechanism suggests an explanation of cases in which postural ET progresses to intention tremor over time. This study was carried out during the physiological exploration of the thalamus, which preceded implantation of deep brain stimulation electrodes or thalamotomy, either for the treatment of tremor or chronic pain. The descriptions of all techniques used in this manuscript have previously been published in detail (Hua and Lenz, 2005 and Lenz et al., 2002). All patients were assessed by a neurologist specializing in movement disorders and underwent a full clinical assessment (Table 1). The severity of tremor was graded using the validated Fahn rating scale (Fahn et al., 1988), which includes objective evaluation of tremor amplitude.

Municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration fly ash used in this study was obtained from Tuas South Incineration Plant in Singapore. The fly ash was autoclaved at 121 °C for 15 min prior to use. A. niger was obtained from Dr H. Brandl (University of Zürich, Switzerland) and was cultured as previously described EPZ5676 solubility dmso [32]. 7-day old conidia were harvested from the surface of potato dextrose agar (Becton Dickinson Co.) using sterile deionized (DI) water. The number of spores was counted under a microscope (Olympus CX40) at 400× magnification using a Superior Marienfeld 0.1 mm depth haemocytometer. The spore suspension was diluted with DI water to

the desired spore suspension concentration (107 spores/ml). 1 ml of spore suspension was added to 100 ml of standard sucrose medium with composition (g/l): sucrose (100), NaNO3 (1.5), KH2PO4 (0.5), MgSO4∙7H2O (0.025), KCl (0.025), yeast extract (1.6), and incubated at 30 °C with rotary shaking at 120 rpm [32]. All reagents were of analytical grade. The liquid medium was autoclaved at 121 °C for 15 min prior to inoculation. Trichostatin A solubility dmso One-step bioleaching

was conducted following reported protocol [32]. In one-step bioleaching, the fungus was incubated with ash at 1% pulp density. Sterile medium was added to autoclaved flasks containing the fly ash, followed by inoculation of fungal spore suspension. Samples of fungi pellet were withdrawn after Day 7, 8, 17, and 27 for SEM, EDX and XRD analyses. In two-step bioleaching, the fungus was first cultured in an autoclaved sucrose medium (as in pure culture) and incubated at 30 °C with rotary shaking at 120 rpm

without fly ash. After 2 days, when a large pH drop occurred, sterile fly ash at 1% pulp density was added to the culture and the incubation was continued. Samples of fungi pellet were withdrawn after Day 2, 3, 7, 8, 17 and 27 for SEM, EDX and XRD analyses. Fungi pellet taken from pure culture, one-step bioleaching, and two-step bioleaching were washed with deionized water for three changes. The pellets were fixed with 3% (v/v) glutaraldehyde in deionized water at 4 °C overnight before being washed with deionized water Ribonucleotide reductase and dehydrated over an ethanol gradient. Samples were dried using a critical point dryer, mounted on copper stub and sputter-coated for 120 s using a JEOL JFC-1300 Auto Fine Coater fitted with a Pt target. A JEOL JSM-5600LV scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to examine the morphology of the fungi and fly ash. For high magnifications, field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM), JEOL JSM-6700F was used. The images obtained were analyzed using Image-Pro Premier software to obtain the size of particles and fungal hyphae. Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) (OXFORD Instruments 6647) was coupled to the SEM for surface elemental analysis of the fungal samples. The EDX data were analyzed using INCA Suite Version 4.01.

g. Scanlan et al., 2009). Sequencing of a dozen Prochlorococcus ( Kettler et al., 2007) and 11 Synechococcus ( Palenik et al., 2003 and Dufresne et al., 2008) representatives from the most abundant lineages has revealed links between their gene contents (and inferred traits), genome evolution and biogeography. While Prochlorococcus and Synechococcus share > 97% identity http://www.selleckchem.com/products/AC-220.html at the 16S rRNA locus, individual ecotypes and clades display a high genomic diversity, both in terms

of gene content and nucleotide identity. Larger genomes in part account for the wider latitudinal distribution of Synechococcus and their higher abundance in coastal regions where environmental conditions Verteporfin research buy are more variable. Genome reduction indicates a selective pressure to minimize resource requirements and decrease cell size at the cost of metabolic flexibility. There is a decrease in both genome size and cell volume along the transition from Synechococcus to Prochlorococcus LL to Prochlorococcus HL clades ( Kettler et al., 2007 and Dufresne et al., 2008). Genome streamlining and loss of regulatory capacity is evident in both HL and LL ecotypes of Prochlorococcus reflecting their adaptation to specialist niches ( Partensky and

Garczarek, 2010). The HL clade is the most recently evolved and at 1.66 Mb the Prochlorococcus HL MED4 genome represents the minimal free-living autotroph ( Dufresne et al., 2005). However the pan-genome (that represents the genetic content of the genera as a whole) of the picocyanobacteria is large

indicating tremendous metabolic flexibility. For example, non-core or accessory genes may account for as much as one-third of the genome in Prochlorococcus isolates, and are dominated by genes encoding outer membrane synthesis and transporters ( Kettler et al., 2007). A large proportion of these accessory genes reside within genomic islands and at least some of the genes likely confer a selective advantage to local environmental conditions in the organisms in which they reside ( Martiny et al., 2009 and Dufresne Linifanib (ABT-869) et al., 2008), for instance the ability for Prochlorococcus HL clade to assimilate nitrite and nitrate ( Martiny et al., 2009). Recent evidence from single cell genomes indicate cells in the Prochlorococcus HL IV harbor genes for Ton-dependent siderophore acquisition, suggesting the capacity to acquire Fe bound to organic ligands. This capacity may explain their dominance in high nutrient low chlorophyll regions of the ocean where low iron concentrations limit primary production ( Malmstrom et al., 2013). In Synechococcus, genome size is strongly correlated with the cumulative lengths of hypervariable regions ( Dufresne et al., 2008) and lateral gene transfer, likely mediated by phage, appears to play a distinctly important role in ecophysiology and biogeography.