The effects of minimal footwear on running form and injury are poorly Selleckchem Crenolanib understood, but studies of western runners who have transitioned to minimal shoes suggest that they are more likely to RFS than actual barefoot runners,20 and 21 with the possible effect of increasing the likelihood of certain injuries.22 and 23 This study aims to add to our understanding of the effects of footwear on variation in running form by examining a population of runners who traditionally wear minimal footwear: the Tarahumara Native Americans from the Sierra Madre Occidental of northwestern Mexico (also known

as the Sierra Tarahumara). The Tarahumara (self-identified as the Rarámuri) are one of several Native American groups that are famous for their

tradition of running long distances in very rough terrain. Oral history and ethnographic accounts report that the Tarahumara used to run down prey such as Talazoparib research buy deer and antelopes through endurance running.24, 25 and 26 This style of hunting, known as persistence hunting, takes advantage of two unique human abilities: to cool by sweating, and to run long distances at speeds that make quadrupeds gallop. Since quadrupeds cool by panting but cannot simultaneously pant and gallop, persistence hunting through endurance running can drive animals into a state of hyperthermia over long distances in hot, arid conditions.27, 28, 29 and 30 The Tarahumara do not train in a conventional sense by running on a regular basis, but instead engage in long distance running several times a year by participating in the rarajipari, an ancient ball game in which teams run long distances, often 75 km or more, while kicking and then chasing a small wooden ball. Tarahumara women compete in a slightly different long distance race known as

the ariwete, which uses a hoop rather than a ball, and typically involves distances of 40 km or less. The antiquity of the rarajipari Tryptophan synthase and ariwete are unknown, but the rarajipari is recorded by the earliest accounts of the Tarahumara, and probably dates back for many thousands of years. Recently, the Tarahumara have also started to compete in ultramarathons. Although the Tarahumara rarely if ever practice persistence hunting today, some older individuals report having done so when they were young, and long distance running remains an important part of their culture through rarajiparis, ariwetes, and ultramarathons. These races have become well known because of the best-seller Born to Run, 31 but it is worth emphasizing that the Tarahumara are just one of many Native American groups that excelled at long distance running. 32 A second reason to study variation in running kinematics among the Tarahumara is that they traditionally run in minimal footwear.