In this model, cells exist in two states, normal and persister. During antibiotic treatment, normal cells die at a rate μ and switch to a persister state at rate α. Persister cells

do not die or grow, and switch to a normal state selleck at rate β (see Additional file 1). The advantage of using a this model is that the parameters that we infer, such as the fraction of persister cells, do not depend on experimental idiosyncrasies, for example, the time at which cell numbers are measured. It has been difficult to compare the results of many previous experiments on persisters for this reason. Persister fractions differ between environmental isolates We selected 11 E. coli isolates from a collection of more than 450 environmental isolates sampled over a period of 12 months from two sites approximately 2m apart near a watershed of Lake Superior (46°42’04′N, find more and 92°12’26′W) [26]. Despite the nearly identical geographical provenance of these isolates, partial genomic sequencing of a subset of these 450 strains has shown that while all are Escherichia species, they encompass a genetic diversity greater than the standard panel of E. coli strain diversity, the ECOR collection. This initial genomic data show that isolates from this location are spread across the E. coli phylogeny, with members in clades A, B1, B2, D, E, F, and C-V [27] (Bertels et al., in prep). Although

the strains in this collection harbor considerable genetic diversity, for the most part, they are not pathogenic, typing negatively for most common virulence loci (M. Sadowsky, personal communication).

We selected the subset of 11 environmental isolates on the basis of their differential levels of survival in ampicillin after 24 hours of treatment (using CFU counts; see Methods). In doing so, we aimed to find strains that differed to the greatest extent in the fraction of persisters that were formed in ampicillin, such that we would have the greatest power to discern whether these differences were paralleled in other antibiotics. In addition to these isolates, we used the standard laboratory strain 5-Fluoracil chemical structure E. coli K12 MG1655, for a total of 12 strains in which we quantified persister fractions. For each of these strains, we first determined the MIC for ampicillin (see Methods), and found that the MICs for these strains differed by less than two-fold (Additional file 2: Table S1). This suggested that the differences in survival did not arise simply from differences in growth and killing dynamics, and may instead have resulted from differences in persister formation. We then quantified, for each strain, survival curves over 48 hours during treatment with 100 mg/ml of ampicillin (Figure 1). In the vast majority of cases, the curves that we observed were clearly not characterized by a single exponential decrease, as would be expected if all individuals in the population had equal susceptibility to the antibiotic.