However,

because most studies have relied on population surveys, liver histology was not evaluated, and the possible effects of coffee/caffeine on liver fibrosis had to be indirectly assessed. The distinction between anti-fibrogenic effects and protection against decompensation is important in understanding the underlying beneficial mechanism. With complete liver biopsy data on all 177 patients, across the spectrum of liver fibrosis, the data from this study suggest that the beneficial effect of caffeine is mediated through reduced rate of progression of fibrosis. However, the lack of association between caffeine intake and hepatic inflammation suggests that, rather than reducing fibrosis by minimizing ongoing inflammation, the protective effect of caffeine may be mediated through a direct anti-fibrogenic mechanism Recent in vitro data suggest possible mechanisms by which coffee or caffeine may affect liver disease and specifically selleck chemical hepatic fibrogenesis. Studies in mice and rats as well as human hepatoma cell lines have shown that coffee and some of its major components (caffeine, cafestol, and kahweol) alter

expression and Compound Library purchase activity of enzymes involved in xenobiotic metabolisms.25–28 Inhibition of phase I enzymes and up-regulation of phase II enzymes such as glutathione-S-transferase have been reported, both of which would favor reduced accumulation of toxic metabolites within hepatocytes.27 Pretreatment with cafestol and kahweol protected mice from carbon tetrachloride hepatotoxicity by inhibiting cytochrome CYP 2E1, the enzyme responsible for carbon tetrachloride bioactivation.29 With respect to caffeine specifically, Gressner and colleagues30 recently reported that caffeine inhibits expression of connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) by interfering with transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) signaling through the SMAD pathway.30 Caffeine was also found to up-regulate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) levels, which further reduce CTGF buy Idelalisib expression. Although these results from primary cell culture

clearly need in vivo confirmation, inhibition of the transforming growth factor beta pathway is an attractive explanation for anti-fibrogenic effects attributed to caffeine. It is important to consider potential confounding factors when interpreting the data from this study. The study was cross-sectional in nature, and caffeine consumption was estimated at the time of liver biopsy, despite the fact that any protective effect would likely occur over many years. Patients consuming the greatest amount of caffeine had less fibrosis on biopsy. Although it is tempting to conclude that caffeine has a protective effect on fibrogenesis, other explanations are also possible. Patients with more advanced liver fibrosis may have reduced their caffeine intake because of a presumption that caffeine may not be good for their health.