fumigatus, has been reported to support an aspergilloma (Lee, 2010; Muller et al., 2011). One such recent case study described an Aspergillus flavus aspergilloma in a neonate who had urinary catheters placed for genitourinary complications (Martinez-Pajares et al., 2010). Aspergillus species of industrial importance can also be problematic. For example, adhesion of Aspergillus niger spores may cause surface deterioration on different substrates, and has

also been associated with colonization of contact lenses (Marques-Calvo, www.selleckchem.com/products/jq1.html 2002). However, many of the characteristics associated Aspergillus biofilms are beneficial with respect to industrial processes. Various organic acids have been produced by Aspergillus biofilms using different supports and bioreactors. In one of the oldest publications, A. niger was grown attached to the vertical discs of a rotating disc reactor (Blain et al., 1979), producing fourfold higher citric acid titres than in stirred tank reactor (Anderson et al., 1980). It was also found that MLN8237 price A. niger immobilized on polyurethane foam (biofilms) in a bubble reactor for citric acid production performed better than free-living pellets (Lee et al., 1989). Other organic acids have been produced by Aspergillus biofilms. For example, Aspergillus

terreus grown attached on polyurethane foam used for itaconic acid production (Kautola et al., 1989), gluconic acid has also been produced by passively immobilized A. niger (Vassilev et al., 1993; Fiedurek, 2001). Moreover, several enzymes have been produced by Aspergillus biofilm systems, such as the production of glucose oxidase, inulinase, amylase and cellulases by A. niger (Fiedurek & Ilczuk, 1991; Murado et al., 1994; Skowronek & Fiedurek, 2006; Gamarra et al., 2010), production

of β-frutofuranosidase by Aspergillus japonicas (Mussatto et al., 2009) and production of xylanases by A. terreus and A. niger (Gawande & Kamat, 2000). Aspergillus foetidus biofilms have been shown to degrade some plastics under growth (Upreti & Srivastava, 2003). Also, Aspergillus versicolor has been found to form biofilms on perlite particles in a packed column reactor, and in this condition, it could degrade n-alkanes, aromatic hydrocarbons and carbazoles of petroleum samples (Sanchez et al., 2006). Removal of heavy metals (copper, Rutecarpine chromium, iron and nickel) by biosorption of either A. niger or A. terreus biofilms formed on polyurethane, has also been reported to be a highly efficient method of metal removal (Tsekova & Ilieva, 2001; Dias et al., 2002). Clearly, Aspergillus biofilms are important in many industrial processes, particularly because they are much more productive than in the classical submerged fermentation with free-living mycelia. Filamentous growth is a fundamental feature of fungal biofilms and is an important morphological characteristic of A. fumigatus required during the development of an aspergilloma (Beauvais et al., 2007; Ramage et al., 2009; Loussert et al.