For example, a mouse model of asthma has demonstrated that the administration of MG-132 nmr the major allergen of ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia), Amb a 1, linked to CpG ODN reverses airway hyperresponsiveness 36. Two common bacterial species identified in farm cowsheds have been shown to induce a Th1-polarizing program in DC that result in an impaired induction of allergic reactions in mice 37. Evidence also exists from human studies, which support the hypothesis that a balance of Th1/Th2 responses plays an important role in the development of allergy. For example, children with peanut allergy display predominant allergen-specific

Th2 responses, whereas children who outgrow their allergy and children without allergy, show a predominant allergen-specific Th1 phenotype 38. Several clinical trials have also shown that vaccination with Amb a 1 conjugated to CpG ODN inhibited Th2 responses in peripheral blood, eosinophil infiltration in the nasal mucosa and significantly reduce allergic rhinitis symptoms and the need

for medication 39, 40. Recently, selleck chemicals a new molecular mechanism that explains how DC polarize T-cell responses toward a Th2 or Th1 phenotype has been described 41. The Notch ligand Jagged-1 is constitutively expressed by immature DC and plays an important role in polarizing Th2 responses. Maturation of DC after TLR-triggering by microbial compounds leads to the downregulation of Jagged-1 and upregulation of Delta-4, another Notch ligand playing an important role in the polarization of Th1 immune responses. Over the past Fenbendazole 15 years, an extensive effort has been performed in the phenotypic and functional characterization of nTreg. Nowadays, it is well established that FOXP3 acts

as master switch transcription factor for nTreg development and function 42. In humans, the in vivo relevance of FOXP3 was recognized after the discovery of the X-linked immune dysregulation, polyendocrinopathy syndrome 43. Patients with X-linked immune dysregulation, polyendocrinopathy syndrome present a typical allergic and autoimmune phenotype due to mutations in FOXP3 leading to non-functional nTreg. Similarly, scurfy mice present a deletion in the forkhead domain of FOXP3, which results in an impaired capacity to develop thymus-derived nTreg 42, 45. These mice are characterized by a lymphoproliferative disease, hyper-IgE levels and eosinophilia without a Th2 skewing, with a life-span of approximately 3 weeks. Although there is no direct evidence that allergy is due to impaired function and defects of the FOXP3 pathway, a recent study has shown that single-nucleotide polymorphisms of FOXP3 are associated with allergy development in childhood 44; however, further studies are needed to firmly demonstrate this association.