Figure 4 DKK-1 concentration in sera (A) and cerebral fluid (B) samples determined by ELISA in patients with tumors and in healthy controls. *, difference between Selleckchem S3I-201 the glioma group and neuronal benign tumor group. **, difference between the glioma group and normal control group. ***, difference between the neuronal benign

tumor group and healthy control group. The DKK-1 concentration in cerebral fluid is increased in glioma, and differences may exist among different glioma grades, suggesting the role of DKK-1 in glioma pathogenesis. To evaluate the clinical usefulness of cerebral flucid DKK-1 level as a tumor detection biomarker, we also measured by ELISA the levels of DKK-1 protein in cerebral flucid samples from the same set of tumor patients and control individuals. The levels of cerebral fluid DKK-1 protein were significantly higher in glioma patients than in healthy donors or in neuronal benign tumor patients (P < 0.05); the difference between healthy individuals and neuronal benign tumor patients was not significant (Figure CRM1 inhibitor 4B), suggesting that the DKK-1

molecule secreted and stably expressed in cerebral fluids can also be applicable to detect presence of glioblastoma and to develop novel prognostic treatments. Discussion Human DKK-1 is a member of the DKK gene family and maps to chromosome 10q11.2 [20]. DKK-1 is expressed in a timely and spatially controlled manner during development. It was first isolated in Xenopus, where it is expressed in the Spemann organizer as a head inducer [21], and its important role in normal head development in mice has also been identified [22]. Other members of the family are DKK-2, DKK-3, and DKK-4, which all contain two Epigenetics inhibitor cysteine-rich domains that

are highly conserved among different family members [18]. Although DKK-1 functions as an inhibitor of the Wnt signaling pathway [21], DKK-2 activates Wnt signaling in Xenopus embryos Adenosine [23]. DKK-1 has multiple biological roles in a variety of cancers. The forced expression of DKK-1 in the small intestine inhibits cell proliferation and the generation of secretory lineages [24, 25]. Furthermore, DKK-1 seems to induce the proliferation of human adult bone marrow stem cells [26] and contribute to the control of osteoporosis, as mutations in LRP5 that impede binding of DKK-1 are responsible for high bone density [27]. DKK-1 also inhibits osteoblastic differentiation and high circulating levels of DKK-1 in patients with multiple myeloma are associated with osteolytic lesions [28]. Gene expression profile analysis of lung and esophageal carcinomas revealed that DKK-1 was highly transactivated in the great majority of lung cancers and esophageal squamous cell carcinomas [17]. Overexpression of DKK-1 has also been detected in human hepatoblastomas and Wilms’ tumors [29].