As discussed above, domesticated plants and animals were not the only species intentionally

introduced by missionary activities. Early botanical analysis of adobe bricks from mission sites in Alta California (Hendry, 1931 and Hendry and Kelly, 1925) suggested the presence of at least three European weed species (Rumez crispus, Erodium circutarium, and Sonchus asper) prior to the onset of missionization, as determined by their presence in bricks used in the earliest construction phases at several missions. An additional 15 species were detected in later mission-era bricks, suggesting a gradual dispersal into the region as cultivation, grazing, and other human activities affected local environments. Archeological analyses have shed further light on these processes, as well as the particular circumstances that obtained at individual mission sites. More recent pollen and macrobotanical work RGFP966 purchase at Mission Santa Cruz ( Fig. 1), for example, demonstrated the presence of at least eight European weed species by 1824 ( Allen, 1998). West (1989) provided a summary of data derived from cultural and natural contexts, which together speak to the challenges of reconstructing the environmental changes of the colonial period,

but also their widespread effects. The impact of introduced plants, animals, and associated cultural practices was not limited to the 21 missions eventually founded by the Franciscans in Alta California. The overall footprint of the mission system RO4929097 was, in fact, much larger and extended to various kinds of outposts established outside of the head missions, including numerous ranchos, estancias, visitas, and asistencias. For example, Mission San Gabriel, near Los Angeles ( Fig. 1), is reported to have had a total of 32 ranchos to support herds of livestock and other agricultural activities ( Phillips, 1975:26–27). Silliman (2004: 153–176) discussed faunal and botanical data from the Petaluma Adobe, a Mexican-era rancho that incorporated many former mission Indians and their ancestral lands ( Fig. 1). Indeed, the expansion of the rancho system under the Mexican administration of California stimulated the movement of introduced livestock

species, and their human caretakers, into outlying areas and marginal rangelands ( Burcham, 1961). This spatial dimension of missionization was not Atezolizumab clinical trial limited to Alta California. Although the 21 Franciscan missions founded there have received the bulk of scholarly attention, the California mission system has its roots in Baja California where Jesuit, Dominican, and Franciscan missionaries founded an additional 27 missions (depending on how they are counted) (Vernon, 2002). Thus, the California mission system, taken as a whole, stretched for roughly 2000 km from the tip of the Baja California peninsula to north of the San Francisco Bay and it included nearly 50 mission establishments and outposts in widely diverse environmental and cultural settings.