4F). This reduction in ROS production is most likely due to reduced activation of Rac1 (Fig. 2). Based on these results, we suggest that

MPA suppresses the immune response, at least in part, selleck chemicals by affecting Rac1 mediated ROS production. We observed hepatic steatosis in GMP synthetases850 mutant larvae (Fig. 1). Consistently, we also observed increased total TG levels in these animals (Fig. 1G); however, since we measured the TG level in whole-body, this could be due to increased TG levels in extrahepatic tissues. Although both intrahepatic biliary and vascular networks exist in GMP synthetases850 mutant larvae at 7 dpf (Supporting Fig. 6), their livers are smaller, likely due to reduced cell proliferation (Supporting Fig. 1). Since liver size is not rescued in H2O2-treated GMP synthetases850 mutant larvae (data not shown), and Rac1 inhibitor-treated, DPI-treated,

E600-treated (data not shown) and Tg (fabp10:GFP-DNRac1)lri4 larvae have normal liver size (Supporting Fig. 5), we conclude that the liver cell proliferation phenotype in GMP synthetases850 mutant larvae appears to be independent of the ROS-mediated pathway. Consistent XL765 manufacturer with a previous study,[28] GMP synthetases850 mutant larvae also display smaller eyes, the absence of xanthopore pigmentation, and dysmorphic branchial arches. However, these phenotypes were not rescued by H2O2 treatment (data not shown), suggesting that these phenotypes are also independent of the ROS-mediated pathway. Hepatic steatosis is a risk factor for progression to NASH, which is associated with inflammation. In GMP synthetases850 mutant larvae, inflammation is not evident at 7 dpf, as evidenced by a lack of neutrophil infiltration to the liver at this stage (Supporting Fig. 7). However, these data do not exclude the possibility of the presence of other types of immune cells in the livers of GMP synthetases850 mutant larvae. At 7 dpf, the percentage of GMP synthetases850 mutant larvae showing ORO staining in the liver is relatively low (Fig. 1E). Since MPA treatment to GMP synthetases850 mutant larvae

further increased the percentage of ORO staining at 7 dpf (Supporting Fig. 8), maternally deposited GMP synthetase mRNA or protein might be influencing the results, or the s850 allele might not be a null. We did not observe any hepatic steatosis at 5 or 6 dpf in GMP synthetases850 mutant larvae (data MCE公司 not shown). Similarly, Rac1 inhibitor or DPI treatment from 3 to 5 dpf did not induce hepatic steatosis in wild-type larvae (Supporting Fig. 9). The observation that the tgh gene is expressed in the liver only after 5 dpf (Fig. 5C) may explain why down-regulating ROS production does not induce hepatic steatosis before 5 dpf. Consistent with this hypothesis, Rac1 inhibitor or DPI treatment induces significant hepatic steatosis after 6 dpf both in starved and fed wild-type larvae (Supporting Figs. 9, 10). We showed that expression of tgh is correlated with ROS levels.