Sleep-associated changes described in the OB by Yokoyama et al. (2011)

also echo the homeostatic depression and downscaling of synapses that occurs during sleep in the hippocampus, with the significant distinction that selection in the OB occurs at the whole cell level rather than selleckchem the synaptic level. This extreme form of structural plasticity at the level of cell population might be important for enhancing the storage capacity of the olfactory system, providing flexibility unmatched by synaptic plasticity and spine turnover alone. Moreover, adult neurogenesis offers a unique source of metaplasticity: newborn cells that are selected to survive experience long-term synaptic plasticity at their proximal inputs, a feature that is absent in preexisting neurons and that fades progressively with time. The work of Yamaguchi and colleagues is the first to provide strong evidence for the role of sleep on the structural reorganization of the OB. Recent data indicates AZD2281 in vivo that self-organized synchronous activity patterns, similar to the one occurring during hippocampal “replays” can be recorded in the olfactory

system specifically during slow-wave sleep (Manabe et al., 2011). The field is now mature enough to search for traces of our exquisite olfactory dreams. “
“Even a neophyte who has never before looked at a Golgi stain of cortical samples can distinguish two basic structural features: dendritic trees covered with spines, and axons coursing straight through the neuropil (Figure 1). In this review I argue that these two simple observations can point to a general model for how neurons integrate inputs and how neural circuits may function. Spines cover the dendritic tree of most neurons in the forebrain (Ramón y Cajal, 1888), and it has been known for over five L-NAME HCl decades that they receive input from excitatory axons (Gray, 1959). What is less appreciated is that, while essentially every spine has a synapse (Arellano et al., 2007b), the dendritic shaft is normally devoid of excitatory inputs. So why do excitatory axons choose to contact neurons on spines, rather than on dendritic shafts? Why do neurons make tens of

thousands of spines to receive excitatory inputs, when they have plenty of available membrane to accommodate them on their dendritic shafts in the first place (Braitenberg and Schüz, 1998 and Schüz and Dortenmann, 1987)? This is what I define as the “spine problem”: what exactly do spines contribute to the neuron? Spines cannot be an accidental design feature: their large numbers and the fact that they mediate essentially all excitation in many brain regions suggest that they must play a key role in the function of the CNS. In fact, given the prevalence of spines throughout the brain, one might even go so far as to say that their role is likely to be so prominent that one may not be able to understand the function of brain circuits without solving the spine problem first.