Substitutions may occur on oligosaccharides that extend from any one of the three conserved inner-core heptose residues (heptose I, II, and III) or, alternatively, directly to heptose IV, an outer core heptose that extends from heptose I [34, 35]. These substitutions Vadimezan datasheet are dictated largely by the diphosphonucleoside choline transferase

encoded by the licD gene. Three licD gene alleles mediate ChoP substitutions at different positions within LOS and, for simplification, we have named the alleles to reflect their selleck kinase inhibitor association with a given heptose-residue: licD I , licD III , and licD IV . Although ChoP has been associated with heptose II residues in selected strains, a specific licD allele mediating these substitutions has not been experimentally documented [35]. The deduced LicD proteins are 265-268 amino acids in length and range in sequence identity from 74-88% with much of the variation occurring in the central part of the primary structure [28, 35]. Although most NT H. influenzae strains possess a single licD PF-4708671 solubility dmso allelic gene that facilitates one ChoP substitution, Fox et al [35] recently reported that 4/25 (16%) of NT H. influenzae middle ear strains possessed two different licD alleles, each present in a separate, phase-variable lic1 locus, that together could produce up to two ChoP substitutions in the strain’s LOS. Both

the number and position of ChoP substitutions within LOS may affect binding of host clearance molecules such as CRP or natural ChoP antibodies [26, 28]. For instance, H. influenzae strains with dual ChoP substitutions bind more CRP, and H. influenzae strains with ChoP substitutions positioned from the distal heptose III residue are

10-fold more sensitive to CRP-initiated bactericidal killing than ChoP associated with the proximal heptose I in the same strains [28, 35]. Consequently, strains with proximal ChoP substitutions (i.e. heptose I) may Amrubicin be more protected from CRP-mediated clearance, and LOS structural studies on selected NT H. influenzae strains have found that ChoP predominate at this position [34]. The overall prevalence of these substitutions in the NT H. influenzae population, however, is not known. Differences in the prevalence of single or combined licD gene alleles between NT H. influenzae and H. haemolyticus may reflect the importance of ChoP structures in NT H. influenzae virulence. The presence of a licA gene in H. haemolyticus suggests that it may contain a lic1 locus and express ChoP in a manner similar to H. influenzae [10]. Since ChoP expression among NT H. influenzae strains can vary greatly due to genetic factors listed above, we speculated that differences in the prevalence of these factors between strain populations of H. influenzae and H. haemolyticus may highlight, in part, which ones provide an advantage to H. influenzae in transcending from commensal to disease-related growth. Results ChoP expression in H. haemolyticus Although H.