Clearly, a high population frequency of an untreatable,

debilitating and lethal disease such as Tay Sachs Disease (TSD) would eFT508 amount to a high risk of serious harm. And it would seem that the same can also SC79 mouse be said of β thalassemia in regions and countries where that disease is highly frequent, even though it is amenable to some form of treatment. But for diseases that are less serious or highly variable or well treatable, enabling autonomous choices rather than prevention should be the objective of PCS. Where the line would have to be drawn is a matter for further debate, involving the participation of the relevant communities themselves. The procedural criterion of bottom-up community involvement and support would also require more precise determination.

Secondly, although this brings in the prevention view, it is prevention as primarily motivated by the community’s concern about the suffering of its children and families, rather than by health economic considerations. Finally, to say that prevention may under conditions be a morally legitimate objective of community-based PCS is not to deny that pressure on individuals or couples is a concern also in those contexts. Especially in socially tight communities, pressure to participate in prevention-aimed PCS is far from imaginable, and safeguards are needed to avoid this (see next subsection). Normative framework For the normative assessment of population screening programmes,

a general framework of criteria has been developed Selumetinib solubility dmso (Dondorp et al. 2010; Health Council of the Netherlands 1994). At the core of this framework, there is a requirement of proportionality: there must be a proven positive balance of benefits over harms for those participating. Whether this requirement is met can only be determined on the basis of scientific evidence regarding many separate aspects including the natural history of the disease, how screening may provide meaningful options for changing an otherwise dreadful outcome, and possible psychosocial implications. Further criteria refer to test characteristics, quality issues, cost-effectiveness etc. It is also stressed that participation must be voluntary and based on informed choice. There is Forskolin in vitro strong consensus that some PCS programmes meet these criteria, whereas some other programmes do not, or less clearly. For instance, with regard to PCS for Fragile-X syndrome (FXS) there are concerns that may affect overall proportionality (De Jong and De Wert 2002; Musci and Moyer 2010). First, it is not always clear as to whether women carry an unstable allele which may cause FXS in offspring—think, for example, of ‘intermediate’ alleles in the grey zone. Such findings change the nature of carrier screening for FXS into a form of risk assessment screening, potentially inducing higher levels of anxiety and complicating decision making.