Numerous chaperone-related genes respond to PAF26 and/or melittin, and the GO term “”response to unfolded protein stress”" was significantly repressed by melittin Tariquidar nmr (Additional File 4.2). The co-chaperone regulator of chaperone activity STI1 was the

fifth most repressed gene by both peptides (Additional File 3.6). HSC82p and HSP82p are the two isoforms of the HSP90-like chaperone in yeast and are among the most abundant proteins in the cytosol [73]. HSC82 is considered to be constitutive while HSP82 is Selleck Liproxstatin-1 strongly induced by heat stress; the corresponding proteins are involved in folding of recalcitrant and denatured proteins. Contrary to HSP82, the HSC82 gene was strongly repressed by PAF26 and the deletion strain was more resistant to PAF26 killing (Figure 5C). Previous reports suggest that although nearly identical in sequence, these two

isoforms are not functionally equivalent [73]. Our study provides additional data on the involvement of protein chaperones and heat shock proteins in antimicrobial peptide mode of action, which has been invoked in previous reports that include yeast and bacterial studies [9, 20, 21, 26]. Among the eleven chaperones repressed by melittin we found SSA2, coding for the CW protein that together with SSA1p was shown to bind the AMP Histatin 5 and promote peptide internalization [21]. In summary, PF-573228 in vivo our findings help to confirm that permeation is not the unique effect of these and other AMP, and that additional (might be also overlapping) mechanisms that go beyond cell lysis are involved. The data presented support Thiamet G the

idea that CW reinforcement and modification are part of a general fungal response to peptides with different modes of action. However, a weakened CW is not necessarily indicative of a higher sensitivity to AMP. The importance of the response to unfolded protein stress or the sphingolipid biosynthesis, previously reported for other unrelated AMP, was also confirmed independently, therefore suggesting their broad contribution to activity of antimicrobial peptides. This study has also uncovered additional processes and genes that will be further analyzed in the near future, as is the case of the involvement of the metabolism of amino groups in the case of PAF26 or the YLR162W gene. Methods Synthesis of peptides PAF26 was purchased at >90% purity from Genscript Corporation (Piscataway, NJ, USA) and was acetylated at the N-terminus and amidated at the C-terminus. PAF26 was also synthesized labeled with fluorescein 5-isothiocyanate (FITC) by covalent modification of its N-terminus with FITC. Melittin was provided by Sigma-Aldrich (Cat nº M2272). Stock solutions of peptides were prepared in 10 mM 3-(N-morpholino)-propanesulfonic acid (MOPS) pH 7 buffer and stored at -20°C. Peptide concentrations were determined spectrophotometrically. Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains S.