Thus, the original question posed at the end of the 19th century BGB324 in vitro regarding how the host perceives infection appears to have been solved. While they were the first to be discovered, TLRs are not the only pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs), and subsequent work has uncovered a plethora of recognition molecules. TLRs and C-type lectin PRRs are membrane-bound, found at the cell surface and in endosomes. Many additional PRRs are found in the cytoplasm, including the “retinoic acid inducible gene I-like receptors,” “nucleotide binding domain

leucine rich repeat containing receptors” (NLRs), and several other DNA sensors that signal through a crucial adaptor (STING, stimulator of IFN genes) associated with the ER membrane (reviewed in [[25]]). In fact, STING has recently been shown also to function as a direct sensor of cyclic di-GMP (a conserved signaling molecule restricted to bacteria) [[26]]. In addition, the pioneering work of the late Jürg Tschopp [[27]] highlighted the caspase 1-activating function of the “inflammasome,” formed in the cytosol after ligand-driven oligomerisation

of certain NLRs [[28]]. Once activated, caspase 1 controls maturation of members of the interleukin (IL)-1 family, and IL-1 is known to drive fever, a characteristic ofinflammation (reviewed in [[29]]). Unforeseen, a second paradigm shift (the first being the identified link between innate and adaptive immunity) has appeared on the horizon in recent years. There is now compelling evidence that germline-encoded PRRs not only perceive pathogen-induced inflammation, but click here also “sterile (auto)inflammation” by sensing metabolically altered self-components (reviewed in [[30, 31]]), including modified lipids [[32]] and proteins [[33]].These data have supported Matzinger’s view that “danger” as sensed by the innate immune system comes mainly “from the inside” [[34]]. Autoinflammatory responses have been linked, for example, to type 2 diabetes (see the clinically relevant effects

of IL-1 blockers [[35]]) and to certain aspects of this metabolic syndrome [[36]]. Furthermore, chronic autoinflammation is considered as hallmark RVX-208 of age-associated arteriosclerosis [[37]]. A third paradigm shift has arisen more recently. PRRs such as TLRs do not discriminate between commensals and pathogens in the gut microbiota. However, there is increasing evidence that TLR signaling in the intestinal epithelium shapes not only intestinal function (reviewed in [[38]]), but also the induction inflammatory Th17 T cells and that of regulatory T cells (reviewed in [[39]]). Thus, T-cell functions appear to be imprinted not only in the thymus but also in the gut. On the morning of 3rd October 2011, we celebrated the announcement that Ralph Steinmann along with Bruce Beutler and Jules Hoffmann had been awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine.